Restoration is a relatively new tool used for the conservation of marine and terrestrial ecosystems. As such, a certain level of uncertainty surrounds what restoration actually is. Our podcast seeks to understand how restoration is defined, specifically as it pertains to Target 2 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework adopted by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 2022. We are particular interested in artificial reefs and what role they might play in meeting Target 2, which aims to Ensure that by 2030 at least 30 per cent of areas of degraded terrestrial, inland water, and coastal and marine ecosystems are under effective restoration, in order to enhance biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, ecological integrity and connectivity. Part of the Conservation and Development Series.
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Host
Alex Risius is a second-year Master of Environmental Management candidate focusing on Coastal Environmental Management. Prior to returning to school, Alex lived in Key West, Florida working as the Assistant Director of Reef Relief, Inc. While working at the non-profit, Alex taught thousands of students about coral reef ecosystems and developed marine science curriculum, worked with community stakeholders to solve local environmental issues, and assisted in hiring and managing staff and interns. After graduation, she hopes to continue working at the intersection of marine conservation and community outreach. Alex enjoyed producing a podcast all about restoration and artificial reefs on Seas the Day!
Alison Stouffer is a Coastal Environmental Management Master candidate at Duke University. Originally from Colorado, Alison has a strange fascination with marine life despite never growing up near the ocean. Prior to her time at Duke, Alison received her B.S. in Environmental Science from Muhlenberg College in Allentown, PA. During her undergraduate career, she took every opportunity to get involved in hands-on research, ranging from the climbing behavior of deer mice to using ATP to estimate marine microbial biomass. Since then, her academic interests have shifted to marine ecology and coastal restoration. When Alison isn’t in the field playing in mud or making maps in the GIS lab, she can be found hunting for the perfect shell, showing off her impeccable collection of fun socks, or perusing the shelves of the local thrift stores.
LinkedIn: www.linkedin.com/in/alisonstouffer
Series Host
Dr. Lisa Campbell hosts the Conservation and Development series. The series showcases the work of students who produce podcasts as a course project. Lisa introduced a podcast assignment after 16 years of teaching, in an effort to direct student energy and effort to a project that would enjoy a wider audience.
Transcript, Episode 38 — Ecosystem Restoration
[Lisa Campbell]: Welcome back to Seas the Day. 2021-2030 is the United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, but what is ecosystem restoration. What are its goals? How would we measure progress towards those goals? This week, as part of our conservation and development series, Alison Stouffer and Alex Risius talk about restoration, what it is and how it might be achieved via the Convention on Biological Diiversity’s Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. Under Target 2 of the Framework, the CBD and its member states seek to – QUOTE – Ensure that by 2030 at least 30 per cent of areas of degraded terrestrial, inland water, and coastal and marine ecosystems are under effective restoration, in order to enhance biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, ecological integrity and connectivity.” ENDQUOTE, There is a lot packed into that target. Let’s hear what Alison and Alex have to say about it.
INTRODUCTION [Duration 01:22]
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[ALEX]: Hello everyone and welcome back to another Seas the Day Episode with your hosts Alex…
[ALISON]: …and Alison.
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[ALEX]: Have you ever wondered what two women talk about over a glass of ~adult grape juice~?
[ALISON]: Most people might talk about their latest tik-tok creation, what Netflix shows they have been watching lately, or about that half eaten sandwich that’s been sitting in the work fridge for months.
[ALEX]: But for us…
[ALISON]: …two marine scientists at the Duke Marine Lab…
[ALEX]: …our conversations usually revolve around debating whether or not everyday objects such as refrigerators, car tires, and old school buses can be used to build artificial reefs for restoring degraded ecosystems.
[ALISON]: Ummmmmm, school buses? They surely can’t, can they?
[ALEX]: And if so, is that really restoration, or just marine dumping in disguise?
[ALISON]: What then, is restoration really?
[ALEX]: Grab your drink of choice, relax, and join us as we ponder the enigma that is ~restoration~.
[BOTH]: Cheers! [clink]
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DEFINING RESTORATION [Duration 05:08]
[ALEX]: Where does your mind first go when you hear the word restoration?
[ALISON]: That’s a good question. I think I typically think about restoration as some large scale project that completely rebuilds a degraded natural ecosystem.
[ALEX]: So for you, the main point is rebuilding nature and a sense of naturalness?
[ALISON]: Yeah, that sounds about right.
[ALEX]: I think you might be surprised to find out that many widely agreed upon definitions don’t have much to say about naturalness at all.
[bruh]
[ALEX]: According to the Society for Ecological Restoration, restoration entails “assisting in the recovery of ecosystems that have been degraded or destroyed, as well as conserving the ecosystems that are still intact.”
[ALISON]: You’re right, that definition doesn’t really emphasize how natural the process or intervention needs to be. What if the degraded or destroyed ecosystem is recovered elsewhere? Or if a non-native species is used to assist in recovery? These scenarios don’t really seem to fit into the preconceived notion of what constitutes restoration.
[ALEX]: Exactly! I also find it interesting that this definition isn’t underlined by the need to reverse degradation to the pre-disturbed form.
[ALISON]: I noticed that too.
[ALEX]: And it isn’t the only one. According to the United Nations, restoration is “the process of halting and reversing degradation, resulting in improved ecosystem services and recovered biodiversity.”
[ALISON]: Oh interesting. I think understanding what practitioners really mean by restoration is critical. Especially nowadays as the importance of including restoration into ecosystem management is increasingly being discussed.
[ALEX]: So much so that the UN integrated restoration into the newly adapted framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity and declared this decade the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration.
[ALISON]: How newly adapted are we talking about?
[ALEX]: The Convention on Biological Diversity, or CBD, entered into force back in 1993 with three main objectives: 1) the conservation of biological diversity, 2) the sustainable use of the components of biological diversity, and 3) the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. However, the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework was adopted just last year in 2022 at the 15th Conference of Parties in Montreal. The framework includes 4 goals and 23 targets that are hoped to be met by 2030.
[ALISON]: And this is where restoration comes into play?
[ALEX]: It is. Target 2 of the Global Biodiversity Framework specifically states to “ensure that by 2030 at least 30 percent of areas of degraded terrestrial, inland water, and coastal and marine ecosystems are under effective restoration, in order to enhance biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, ecological integrity and connectivity.” Since there is a lot to unpack in Target 2, our discussion today will solely focus on biodiversity, ecosystem functions, and ecosystem connectivity aspects of Target 2.
[ALISON]: Does the CBD go on to define how effective restoration can be achieved?
[ALEX]: Not explicitly in the target. They do, however, use the ipbes…
[ALISON]: …the what?…
[ALEX]: …the United Nations Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services…I know, it’s a mouthful…They use their definition of restoration which is “any intentional activity that initiates or accelerates the recovery of an ecosystem from a degraded state.”
[ALISON]: That seems to be in-line with the other definitions you shared. I do like that they specifically state that restoration is intentional. I’m still getting caught up on the wording though. What is meant by effective? Is that defined anywhere?
[ALEX]: It’s not. Which is especially problematic considering that restoration is so ill-defined. The target tells us what needs to be restored, but lacks details on how to go about the process or, as you noted, what counts as effective.
[ALISON]: If the desired outcomes of restoration are to enhance 1) biodiversity, 2) ecosystem services, and 3) integrity and connectivity, then effective could have a lot of different meanings. A monoculture of fast growing trees would be effective at sequestering carbon and providing an ecosystem service. But it would not be effective at enhancing biodiversity.
[ALEX]: I could use another glass [wine pouring].
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ARTIFICIAL REEFS [Duration: 02:83]
[ALISON]: With restoration having multiple definitions, interpretations, and applications, I wonder whether this ambiguity creates space for something like artificial reefs to be considered as restoration.
[I’m extremely confused. You’re confused, I’m confused bro.]
[ALEX]: I’m not going to lie, the word artificial seems so…for a lack of a better term…fake.
[ALISON]: Well, these reefs are artificial in the way that they mimic natural reefs out of man-made materials. For example, we have your stereotypical coral reef transplanting sites, oyster sanctuaries, and shipwrecks. As well as some unconventional types like decommissioned oil rigs, concrete piping, and reef balls. I even read once that a nonprofit in Florida has installed over 1,000 concrete mermaid sculptures at the bottom of the ocean. So you name it, and it is probably a reef.
[ALEX]: Going back to our conversation on naturalness, I would imagine some practitioners and environmentalists would find these types of reefs controversial simply because of the high level of human intervention and lack of natural materials used. That being said, the definitions that we discussed earlier don’t specify naturalness as a criteria for restoration.
[ALISON]: Exactly!
[ALEX]: If we go back to our definition of restoration used in the CBD, I would think artificial reefs certainly count as an intentional activity since they are being deployed purposefully. But I’m not so sure about the part of the definition that addresses the recovery of a degraded ecosystem.
[ALISON]: I think this is why artificial reefs are a great example to problematize what constitutes restoration. Because it would depend on the application of the reef. Say a decommissioned vessel is sunk on a barren portion of the ocean floor that wouldn’t otherwise have any structural integrity to it, is that assisting in recovery?
[ALEX]: That’s a tough one because if you have the same scenario but the vessel is sunk where a thriving coral reef used to exist then I would think you could argue it is assisting in recovery.
[ALISON]: Exactly! I think artificial reefs, under some circumstances, could be considered restoration. And potentially even effective restoration under the CBD. With that being said, I don’t think artificial reefs are a one-size-fits-all solution to seafloor restoration.
[ALEX]: Okay, now we’re getting somewhere. I think it would also be helpful to chat about how Target 2 of the CBD can be applied to artificial reefs.
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[ALEX]: Alright, let’s dive into Target 2.
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BIODIVERSITY PORTION OF TARGET 2 [Duration: 02:87]
[ALEX]: The first component of this target aims to enhance biodiversity through restoration. In the context of artificial reefs, study after study has found that artificial reefs have proven to increase the biological diversity and abundance of species in a particular area. For example, a study, published this year, by Nauta et al. used artificial reefs to enhance biodiversity and food web complexity in an intertidal ecosystem. After two and a half years, the authors found a 76% increase in species richness, which is a common indicator of biodiversity.
[ALISON]: That sounds like a huge success to me! It makes sense that an increase in habitat, whether man-made or natural, would increase the available resources present to support a more biodiverse ecosystem. I just wonder how these reefs might compare to their natural counterparts?
[ALEX]: Surprisingly, in a lot of the papers I read, they actually compete pretty darn well with their natural counterparts. A study by Song et al. found artificial reefs to outperform surrounding natural habitat in the Northern Yellow Sea on a variety of biodiversity indicators. The artificial reef ecosystems hosted higher benthic fish abundance, biomass, species richness, and diversity than natural areas of bare sea floor.
[ALEX]: Additionally, a meta-analysis published by Paxton et al. found that, from a synthesis of 39 studies, artificial reefs support comparable levels of fish density, biomass, species richness, and diversity to natural reefs. However, the authors conclude that artificial reef successes depend on the materials being used and the reef locations. Like you said earlier, artificial reefs are not a one-size-fits-all solution.
[ALISON]: So from a biodiversity standpoint, artificial reefs sound like a pretty encouraging form of restoration. And I get the idea of not being a one-size-fits-all solution, but it sounds like the more we study the impacts artificial reefs have on ecosystems, the better we will be at tailoring reef materials and sizes to different benthic communities.
[ALEX]: Exactly, I also understand that conserving natural, untouched, healthy ecosystems is the most ideal way to protect biodiversity but…artificial reefs seem like they might be an effective Plan B for restoring what is already degraded!
[ALISON]: Let’s get into the second portion of Target 2, using restoration for enhancing ecosystem services and functions [here comes the money].
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES PORTION OF TARGET 2 [Duration: 03:30]
[ALISON]: Switching from the more nature-based side of restoration, this portion is all about humans! As defined by the CBD, ecosystem services are simply the “benefits people obtain from ecosystems.”
[ALEX]: Ugh humans are the worst, we always have to insert ourselves into everything. We finally have 23 targets to protect and conserve biodiversity and of course how nature can benefit us humans and the economics of it all has to be woven in there. Poor little animals can’t even have one thing for themselves. What’s up with that?
[ALISON]: Woah now, no need to pop off. Many ecosystem services are essential for human life. So it’s actually a good thing that they are explicitly incorporated into the CBDs targets. Plants help clean the air we breath and water we drink, bees pollinate flowers so that we have food to eat, bacteria decompose waste…the list goes on and on.
[ALEX]: Okay, I’m starting to see your point. What services and functions do artificial reefs provide us then?
[ALISON]: There are quite a few services that humans benefit from. For example, a paper by Chen et al. discusses how artificial reefs off the coast of Thailand are creating fish stocks and habitats to increase fish capture and production, while also providing a good environment for recreational fishing and diving. By developing an area the size of Boston, Massachusetts of artificial reefs, the coastal town produced 64 blue whales worth of fish and provided 8,000 jobs to community members.
[DJ airhorn]
[ALEX]: Love your creative metrics, that is actually really impressive. It is exciting to know that artificial reefs are helping ecosystems and communities in multiple ways.
[ALISON]: They really are. A paper published in 2019 by Ramos et al. describes a plethora of services artificial reefs provide and there were way more than I thought there would be. Not only do artificial reefs increase fishing yield and food production for artisanal and commercial fisheries, but they can also provide opportunities for tourism and recreation. For example, some common activities at these sites include boating, diving, surfing, spear fishing, and snorkeling. And the list of services goes on!
[ALEX]: Really?
[ALISON]: Another more obvious service we benefit from is the repurposing of obsolete materials. If we think back to the types of artificial reefs, one of the ones I listed is concrete piping. In this scenario, the concrete piping likely was a product of old infrastructure. Instead of taking up space in a landfill, it can be repurposed to provide critical habitat on the seafloor.
[ALEX]: Woah, that’s pretty cool that we’ve learned how to manipulate our environment in so many complex ways in order to benefit the overall ecosystem.
[ALISON]: It doesn’t stop there, the paper even goes on to list other examples of indirect services artificial reefs provide, including nutrient cycling and shoreline protection measures.
[ALEX]: Okay, I get it now. In terms of enhancing ecosystem services and functions, artificial reefs as a restoration intervention seem to meet the criteria set by Target 2 of the CBD. I feel like we can safely say at this point that artificial reefs are, in fact, an effective form of restoration.
[ALISON]: Well, we aren’t done yet. We still haven’t talked about the last portion of Target 2, which is how restoration may, or may not, enhance ecosystem integrity and connectivity.
INTEGRITY & CONNECTIVITY PORTION OF TARGET 2 [Duration: 03:77]
[ALEX]: Oh yes, and although the majority of what we have discussed so far is the positive effects artificial reefs have on ecosystems and the services they provide, we see that this portion of Target 2 as it applies to artificial reefs isn’t all rainbows and butterflies in the context of restoration [eat rainbows and poop butterflies].
[ALEX]: In some cases, artificial reefs have been extremely successful in enhancing ecosystem integrity and connectivity….while others have not.
[ALISON]: Can we back up for a second? What does the CBD even mean by ecosystem integrity and connectivity?
[ALEX]: The CBD separates it out into two parts. First ecological connectivity is defined as the “unimpeded movement of species” with “continuous ecosystems often connected through ecological corridors.” Second, the CBD defines ecological integrity as occurring when “composition, structure, function, and ecological processes occur within their natural ranges of variation.”
[ALISON]: If I am understanding this definition correctly, it seems that this portion of Target 2 is all about how restoration interventions need to maintain characteristics that replicate natural variation in habitat quality, composition, size, and connectivity.
[ALEX]: Exactly!
[ALISON]: Just focusing on connectivity, I can see how artificial reefs have the potential to create habitat corridors between already existing natural reefs in what would otherwise be barren seafloor. While this might be a positive contribution to the seascape for migratory species, I would be concerned about the potential for invasive species to spread in the same manner.
[ALEX]: Just imagine those sneaky lionfish expanding their presence through artificial reef island hopping.
[ALISON]: Although native to the South Pacific and Indian Oceans, lionfish have made quite the presence for themselves and are taking over Caribbean reefs. According to Soares et al., these uninvited guests are causing serious problems for the Atlantic primarily by eating more than double their body weight in reef fish every day, outcompeting and decimating natural fish assemblages. Not to mention, researchers at the University of South Florida estimate that invasive species cost the United States alone more than $120 billion in damages every year [that’s a lot of damage].
[ALEX]: Yikes, I knew they were bad, but didn’t think they were $120 billion worth of bad.
[ALISON]: Additionally, the authors reported that, for the first time ever, multiple lionfish had been spotted off the Brazilian coast. And guess what? The vast majority of lionfish spotted were recorded at artificial reef sites.
[ALEX]: If invasive species are taking up space along these man-made reefs, then why did they decide to build them in the first place?
[ALISON]: Well, I think the fishing communities of Brazil had a priority to build artificial reefs to increase artisanal fishing productivity. In this situation, ecosystem services were enhanced in these small communities, while connectivity may have been overlooked.
[ALEX]: I’m going to sound like a broken record….[record scratch]….but, seems like this is another perfect case of a solution that is not one-size-fits-all.
[ALISON]: Who knew that women’s clothing and restoration had so much in common?!
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CONCLUSION [Duration: 01:49]
[ALEX]: Oh wow, I love being a marine science nerd.
[ALISON]: Nothing I’d rather do during happy hour than chat with my bestie about these fascinating topics. I think we could probably talk about this for another ten more episodes if we had the chance.
[ALEX]: Well, that would mean we would need 10 more bottles of ~adult grape juice~. Haaa, just kidding. But in all seriousness, using artificial reefs to problematize what counts as restoration and how it can be applied to meet Target 2 of the CBD was really eye-opening.
[ALISON]: With so many definitions, interpretations, and applications of restoration, it’s easy to get lost in the restoration sauce and really nail down what interventions can be used to accomplish this target in the future. I think there is a strong, while controversial, case for artificial reefs in restoration.
[ALEX]: From our conversation, I would argue that artificial reefs definitely have the potential to enhance biodiversity, ecosystem services and function, and integrity and connectivity, satisfying the three components of Target 2. However, it was clear to me that it is highly dependent on the application and the purpose of the reef itself.
[ALISON]: Well listeners, what do you think? Are artificial reefs here to stay? Do you think these man-made reefs will be accepted by restoration practitioners in the future? Only time will tell.
[ALEX]: Thanks for listening to this episode! If you want more information on anything related to Target 2 of the CBD, restoration ecology, or artificial reefs check out the links in our podcast notes.
[ALISON]: We will see you next time!
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[LISA]: Thanks for listening to Seas the Day. Today’s episode was written and recorded by Alison Stouffer and Alex Risius. Final editing was by Rafa Lobo.
Our theme music is by Joe Morton and our artwork is by Stephanie Hillsgrove.
Follow us on Instagram and Twitter @seasthedaypod and visit our website at www.site.nicholas.duke.edu/seastheday. Don’t forget to leave us a rating on Apple Podcasts, or wherever you listen.
END
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